Preliminary Questions
1.
Alexandria Miranda
2.
Posts
a.
Post 9 – 2/3
b.
Post 10 – 2/3
c.
Post 11 – 2/6
d.
Post 12 – 2/6
e.
Post 13 – 2/10
f.
Post 14 – 2/10
g.
Post 15 – 2/12
h.
Post 16 – 2/13
i.
Interactive posts: 2/3, 2/6, 2/10, 2/15
3.
Readings Completed
a.
I completed all of the readings for the lessons. :)
b.
Religious Literature readings completed: Tao Te
Ching, Gospel of Thomas, Dhammapada, Koran
4.
Films and Audio Lectures Completed: I completed
all films and audio lectures. My favorite two videos were "Did Jesus die on Cross" and the secret life of the Amish, which really caught my interest. I liked the conspiracy like ideas of Jesus living after the Resurrection and I also liked the honesty and joy the Amish family exuded in the film. The audio lecture I found most helpful was the
Yale lecture on the five claims of the bible.
5.
Recommendation: I liked the BBC website for religious
facts, but it was a little overwhelming to not have a specific text to learn
from. I really enjoy the youtube videos and interesting articles, but I think
it would beneficial to group readings into a text like format, instead of going
to various websites to read and browse.
6.
Field Trip: I visited the Hsi Lai Temple
in Hacienda Heights on February 10th, 2013. I attended the service
of the thousand Buddha’s during the Lunar New year.
7.
Midterm Grade: B
Makeup work: I was asked to complete
Lesson/Post/Midterm Q 3 on Eastern Mystics, but I only completed the post.
8.
Of all the religions I have learned about my two
favorites are Buddhism and Taoism. I like that both religions can be atheistic
but still have a strong ethical code on how to live life. What drew me to both
of these religions is their focus on removing pain and suffering and teaching
one how to simply live and be. I think I’m drawn to these religions because the
focus is on the inner being becoming one with the outer being, and teaches one
how to be spontaneous without being impulsive. I don’t think I could choose
between these two religions for a favorite, unless takes into account the
syncretism of these two religions in Zen Buddhism.
Essay Questions
1A. Islam Reading
The word Islam means
“submission to the will of God.” There are over a billion adherents of Islam,
called Muslims, making Islam the second largest religion in the world. Islam
began over 1400 years ago on the Arabian Peninsula in a town called Mecca.
Islam is an Abrahamic faith, believing adherents descend from Abraham, of the
Old Testament, through his first son Ishmael. While adherents believe Islam as
always existed as the true religion, they acknowledge the beginning of their
religion with the advent of the prophet Muhammad. In 610, a man named Muhammad
was praying in cave when an angel called Gabriel reportedly appeared before
Muhammad and told him to recite the words of God. These words would later
become the Qur’an, the Islamic holy book. With his new revelation, Muhammad the
Prophet spread Allah’s words and changed the course of history. In 622,
Muhammad was expelled from Mecca long with his followers. This year is the
beginning of the Islamic calendar, which adherents still follow to this day.
Eventually Muhammad returned to the place of his birth, Mecca and led the
community as a prophet until his death in 632. Muhammad wasn’t just a religious
leader but a military leader as well, spreading the religion of Islam and
Islamic leadership.
After the death of Muhammad,
the community did not agree on who should continue to lead the movement because
he did not leave a successor. One faction believed that Abu Bakr, the Prophets
father-in-law, should be the next leader while others supported Ali, Muhammad’s
son-in-law. In the end, Abu Bakr became the first Caliph while Ali later became
the 4th Caliph. Islam spread rapidly though the Middle East as the
Caliphs created an Islamic Empire. In 7
11, Islam began to spread to
Spain and by 720 the Islamic Empire conquered Spain and Portugal. The Islamic
Empire created a golden age of learning, where science, mathematics, astronomy,
trade and medicine flourished under the relative safety and stability of the
empire. It was Islam that translated the ancient Greek texts and kept the
knowledge of the ancients alive. This Golden Age was beneficial to all citizens
of the empire, even if non-Muslims were second class citizens with fewer rights
and higher taxes.
While Islamic citizens held
substantially more rights, even non-adherents of Islam, especially those of the
Abrahamic faiths, were tolerated as second-class citizens. Non-Muslims had to
recognize the Islamic power and superiority, as well as avoid anything that may
be construed as offensive to the religion. In addition, they were required to
pay higher taxes than Muslims and did not hold many legal rights. The Islamic
Empire continued in relative stability until around 1130, when the Empire experienced
a decline due to in fighting among the various Muslim rulers as well as
increased Christian aggression from Europe. This Empire eventually evolved into
the Ottoman Empire from 1301 to 1922; one of the largest and longest empires in
history. Art, architecture, travel, medicine, technology and poetry flourished
under Muslim rule.
All adherents to Islam
believe that there is one god, Allah, who is an eternal, omniscient and
omnipotent god who has no shape or form. This god is a merciful, just god who
rewards and punishes fairly. Adherents reach out to the divine through praying
and reciting the Qur’an. In addition in the belief of a monotheistic god, Islam
has several different prophets who have been sent to man to teach the law of
Allah. Among these prophets are Jesus, Moses, Abraham (of the Jewish or
Christian tradition) as well as Muhammad, who Muslims believe is the last
prophet. Islamic beliefs can also be characterized by the belief in angels and
a belief in the Day of Judgment, when Allah will judge all souls for heaven and
hell. Predestination is another basic belief of Islam, adherents believe that
Allah, or god, has knowledge of all that will happen yet somehow this
predestination doesn’t affect free will. Muslims base their religious and ethical
laws on the Qur’an, their scripture, and the Sunnah, the practical teachings,
sayings and doings of the Prophet Muhammad.
All facets of Muslim life are
covered by Sharia law, which is derived from the Qur’an, the Hadith or Sunnah,
and fatwas, rulings of Islamic scholars. The laws are divided into four
different areas; laws for worship [, commerce, marriage/divorce and penal laws.
These laws are intended to show the way to happiness and to promote the
well-being of all. Marriage in the Islamic religion is a social contract
between a man and a woman. While a man is allowed to have up to four wives if
he is in a position to provide for all of them, divorce is acceptable if either
party does not live up to their social contract. The ceremony itself is dependent
on the adherent’s local cultures and customs. Sex is only allowed within the
confines of marriages and any type of homosexual relationship is forbidden.
Hijab is another Islamic custom. Hijab means “barrier or partition” and refers
to a principle of modesty in behavior and dress in both men and women. There
are no hard and fast rules for this principle of modesty, and the appropriate
dress is open to interpration by adherents and religious scholars. This
principle of Hijab seems to focus more on women’s dress, in Islam a woman is
required to observe this principle in front of any male non-family member.
Typically a woman is required to cover her hair and/or chest, but in some
regions a women may be completely covered with or without eye openings. Despite
requirements by local governments, the covering of women is meant to be a
choice to express their religion and their submission to the will of Allah.
There are five pillars of
Islam that adherents follow in their everyday lives. The first pillar is Shahadah,
the statement of faith. This statement is “there is no god but Allah and
Muhammad is his prophet.” This statement, said three times in front of
witnesses, is the only requirement necessary for one to convert to Islam. The
second pillar is Salat, or daily prayer. Adherents are expected to pray five
times a day at dawn, midday, late afternoon, after sunset, and before sunset
and midnight. Adherents face Mecca as they pray and are also required to wash
before each prayer. The third pillar is Zakat, or charity. Zakat is a
systematic giving of 2.5% of wealth each year. The fourth pillar is Sawn, or
fasting. This refers to fasting during the holy month of Ramadan which occurs
during the ninth month of the lunar calendar. All able Muslims are required to
fast from sun up to sun down and also abstain from sexual activity during this
time period. This is meant to help a person learn to obey god, develop
self-discipline, appreciate god’s gifts and to create fellowship among
adherents. The final pillar is Hajj. The Hajj is a sacred pilgrimage to the
holy city of Mecca and it required to make at least one pilgrimage in a
lifetime is one is physically and financially capable of doing so. The Hajj is
an important aspect of the Islamic faith, when adherents of both genders and
from a multitude of ethnicities and cultures come together during the 8th
and 13th of the 12th lunar month. Adherents wear simple
white clothing, with women only covering their hair regardless of their local
customs. Pilgrims enter a state of purity when they renounce evil and mundane
matters such as sex, quarreling or other negative feelings.
During the Hajj, each pilgrim
performs many different rites. The first rite is circling the Kabba seven times
saying specific prayers, this is meant to teach that all human activity is
centered around god. The second rite is running between two mountains which is
meant to represent Hagar, mother of Ishmael, and her desperation to find her
son water. In Islamic mythology, a spring burst forth and god rewarded her for
her trust in him. The third rite is standing on the plain of Arafat, where an
animal sacrifice is made to represent the sacrifice Abraham made in lieu of his
son. The hajj continues with stoning of pillars that represent Satan and
circling the Kabba seven more times. The Hajj is an important time when
distinctions are removed from all people, and it is believed that the Hajj
purifies those who return from it.
The Islamic place of worship
is called a mosque. Adherents are required to remove their shoes and
participate in ritual washing, or wadhu, before participating in the
activities. There is very little furniture; everyone sits on the floor to
represent equality. Despite this, women and men are separated. Pictures are
considered blasphemous because god had commanded his followers to have no
images before them. Women are also required to cover everything but hands and
face during prayer.
Despite following the five
pillars of faith and many basic beliefs, there are subdivisions in Islam. The
main branches of Islam are Sunni Islam and Shia Islam. These branches agree on
the fundamentals however their distinctions are based more on historical
differences as well as social and political development. Ethic composition also
plays a role. Sunni Islam makes up 85% of all adherents, and means “one who
follows the Sunnah.” This group acknowledges Abu Bakr as the Prophets true
successor. Shia Islam, meaning partisans of Ali, believe Ali should have been
the true successor. While this branch does not encompass as many followers as
Sunni Islam, Shia Islam is the predominant sect of Iran. Sunni and Shia Islam
differ in several ways. First, Shia Islam regards sayings and information from
sources close to the prophet as more valid whereas Sunni considers all sources
equally valid. Sunni’s regard Shia practices of visiting shrines of Imams,
religious leaders, and saints as heretical and Shia believes in the coming of
the Mahdi who is righteous and will appear at the end of times. The leadership
of each branch is also different, Shia Islam has a religious hierarchy
supported by Zakat while Sunni leadership is more localized and funded by the
state. Regardless of the specific sect of Islam, Islam is a monotheistic
religion focused on living an ethical life according to the laws of god. It is
important in this religion to follow the laws and to submit to the will of God.
1B. Islam Film
According to John Green’s
Crash Course, Islam is a radical reforming religion. Muslims believe that god
sent the prophet Muhammad as a final prophet to bring people back to the one
true monotheistic religion. While Islam recognizes Jesus, Moses and Abraham as
important prophets of god they are different in Islam than in the other
Abrahamic faiths. Islam also radically increased the rights of women and
orphans, who during this time period were not well cared for by the community.
The BBC film on the prophet
Muhammad went into much more depth about who the prophet was and the experiences
that led him to search for spiritual truth. Muhammad was born in 1400 CE to a
very poor family in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. His father had died before he was born
and his mother did not have any money in which to support him. Following the
customs at the time, she gave Muhammad to a Bedouin family on the outskirts of
the settlement and the woman of the Bedouin was his wet nurse until he returned
to his mother at 5 years old. His mother was not in very good health and on a
caravan journey for Muhammad and his mother to visit relatives she fell ill and
died at an oasis. This tragic incidient left Muhamad an orphan and he went to
live with his paternal grandfather for 2 years until his grandfather’s death.
Following this third loss, he was taken in by an uncle who was very influential
in the Muhammad’s tribe and a trader. Muhammad learned the business of trade and
travelled far and wide for this job. As he grew older, he sought the hand of
his uncle’s daughter but he was refused because of his lowly status as an
orphan. Later, a wealthy older women named Khadija proposed marriage to him
after he had conducted business for her and he was with her for 24 years and
fathered several daughters. Despite his happiness in his personal life, Muhammad
was not happy. He saw the way the world was, full of injustice and suffering.
He was sickened by violence and the use of money to control society. He was
also upset by the treatment of the poor, weak and downtrodden in his tribal
society; he himself had been victim of this treatment growing up. So he began
to search for spiritual truth.
Muhammad took many retreats
into the mountains near Mecca, and it was in the Cave of Hira. It was here he received
his revelations from god. One night, after much meditation Muhammad fell asleep
and awoke to a terrible voice commanding him to read. Muhammad replied he could
not read, and twice more he was commanded to read. On the third command,
Muhammad asked what he should read. Unfortunately, that was the last
communication for many months and Muhammad was shaken from this revelation.
Months later, he was visited again and he learned of the divine message that
was meant for him to carry to the world. This message and words spoken became
the Qur’an. Muhammad never claimed to be divine; he was only the messenger for
the word of God. Muhammad denied having powers or any special abilities except
being chosen by god as a messenger. Despite this, Muhammad gained a following.
The earliest Muslims were young men from aristocratic families and the
vulnerable and poor seeking hope and help. Tribal society did not approve of
this new religion, as the Arabian people were a polytheistic, not monotheistic
people. Muslims faced many hardships in Mecca and eventually left to avoid
violence.
Muhammad and his followers
eventually returned to Mecca, and Islam began to spread. Islam is not a
religion of compulsion though, and Muhammad once said “to you your religion and
to me mine.” This philosophy is an important part of Islam; one must choose to
follow Allah by free will. Muhammad was the last of the prophets, according to
Islam, and despite the contributions and message spread by Muhammad there are
no shrines or holy places for him. This is because Islam believes that one
should only worship the true god and have no images or pictures or other
impediments that would distract from the oneness of God.
2A. Sufism Reading
Sufism, also called Tasawwuf,
is Islamic mysticism that is concerned with the spirituality and inner
character of a Muslim. While many people assume Sufism is a sect of Islam it
may be more accurately described as an aspect of Islam. Sufism may be found in
the Sunni Islam, Shia Islam or other sects of Islam. Sufism may be defined as a
dedication to worshiping Allah, a disregard for material things (including
finery, wealth, and prestige) abstinence from pleasure and a withdrawal from
others to dedicate one’s self totally to Allah. Sufism mirrors eastern
mysticism in many ways. While the number of adherents of Sufism is relatively
few; Sufism has helped to shape Islamic history, thought, literature and
philosophy. An interesting facet of Sufism is that they believe Islamic
knowledge should be learned from a teacher, not just from book. While the
origins of the word Sufi is uncertain, scholars believe the word may derive
from the word “wool” because of the wool clothing Sufis wore or for the word
“sofia” which means purity or
wisdom. A Sufi mystic is a person with
an education who wishes to be closer to Allah. Sufis belong to Tariqas, orders
who have masters that teach the sacred knowledge. Although Tariqas have a long
history, some religious scholars question the necessity of these teachers
because the Prophet did not implement this style of religious eduction. Sufism’s
response is that in the beginning, all Islam was Islamic mysticism but Islamic
followers were distracted by worldliness, so now the Sufi’s must teach others
their ways.
Sufi’s divide the teachings
of Islam into three different concepts; Islam, the outward practice, Imam, the
belief in the unseen and what prophets have told us, and Ishan, the worship of
Allah as if he was seen. Religious leaders that teach Sharia are at the Islam
level, Imams of Aqida “tenants of faith” teach at the level of Imam and Imams
of Sufism teach at the Ihasan level.
All Sufis are devout Muslims.
They follow the five pillars of faith, which include praying five times a day,
giving to charity, fasting, and the holy pilgrimage. Sufi’s also believe the
name of the Prophet was Dhikr Allah, remembrance of God. Shikr is the
invocation of Allah’s divine name. Sufis use dramatic and poetic metaphors to
describe their relationship with Allah and what the Dhikr makes them feel like,
it was once described as the inner self being drunk on divine love. This poetic
tradition of Sufism was made popular by Jalaluddin Rumi who was born in 1206 in
present day Afghanistan.
Rumi was a renowned Sufi
scholar and considered the best Persian poet of all time. Rum was a firm
believer in the Qur’an but citizen the outwardly legal and ritual practices. He
dedicated his work and teaching to waking others up so that they may experience
life themselves instead of blindly following religious scholars. After having
spent his early years in an intense study of Arabic, law, hadith, history,
theology, philosophy, math and science; Rumi became one of the highest scholars
in his country at age 24. He continued to teach and gave lectures until he
reached 25 years. In 1244 Rumi met a travelling Sufi named Shams. Shams was to
change Rumi’s life in many way, beginning with Rumi shunning society and
isolating himself from the world. This caused jealousy among his family and
students, and somehow Shams disappeared.
Rumi’s poetry was a type of love poetry, called ghazalas. While the
poetry may seem to be about Shams, scholars say the poetry is really about the
overpowering love of God. Rumi would dictate his poetry to his student, Husam
Chulabi, while he spun around reciting his poetry. This spinning dance would
become the basis for the Mevlevi Order, also called whirling dervishes. Dervish
means doorway because the dance is believed to be a mystical portal between
earth and the cosmos. Although Rumi died in 1273 CE, the Mevlevi order has been
presided over by Rumi’s family for 800 years.
2B. Sufism Film
Rumi was born on September 30th
1207 near Balk, Afghanistan but his family fled to central Turkey to escape the
approaching armies of Genghis Khan. His family settled in an area of many
different faiths and cultures. His father became the head of the Sufi
community, a mystical order of Islam. The film about Rumi poetry discusses how
Islamic mysticism is able to connect with many people of different religions
and cultures. We can connect with Sufism because the truths of Sufism pierce
directly into a human hearts desires and wishes. Sufi’s can use stunning
imagery to capture an audience’s attention and help them to a deeper
understanding. Even Sufi mystics believe that there is a thread of Sufism in
all religions. During the time of Rumi, Sufis would visit and talk with people
of all great religions to promote learning and understanding.
When Rumi’s father died, Rumi
became the head of the Sufi community. He lived his live accordingly until he
met Shams of Tebreeze. Shams is a mysterious figure with very little actually
known about him. Scholars know he was a travelling Sufi Mystic and a dervish.
This man had a profound effect on Rumi and when he disappeared, Rumi began to
write poetry. It began as Rumi was spinning and began to speak poetry. His students
wrote down his words while he spun. Rumi’s poetry was very poetic with wondrous
analogies and imagery. His poetry exists even to this day and is very popular.
Rumi is one of the best-selling poets in America and an enduring figure in Sufi
Islam.
3A. Judaism Reading
Judaism is an ancient
religion with approximately 15 million adherents. Judaism is the oldest of the
three Abrahamic faiths, which also included Christianity and Islam. Judaism is
a monotheistic religion that originated in the Middle East over 3,500 years
ago. Judaism is more than a religion though, it also represents an ethnic and
culture heritage. One of the main characteristics of Judaism is the belief in a
single creator god who every person may have a personal relationship with.
Jewish people believe that God continues to work in the world and have an
active role in the lives of humanity. Jewish people have a convenant
relationship with their god, they believe that they obey god’s law and seek holiness
in return for all the blessings and benefits that have been conferred upon them
by their god. Judaism is a family faith, anyone born of a Jewish mother is
considered Jewish and children are inducted into the religion very early, young
boys are circumcised at 8 days old. While it is possible for a person to
convert to Judaism, it is a long process that must be approved by a Rabbi, a
religious leader and teacher. Interestingly, Judaism is not a missionary faith
but rather seeks to continue as a family oriented tradition.
Judaism means “living the
faith” and has several basic tenants that most adherents follow. The Jewish
people believe in one god who is a transcendent, eternal, merciful, personal
creator god. The Jewish people believe they were chosen by god to set an
example of holiness and ethical behavior in the world. The Jewish religion is
one of strict ethical codes and practices, which vary depending on the specific
sect. As mentioned earlier, Judaism has a strong focus on the family and this
is reflected in their customs and rites. The Sabbath, which begins at sunset
Friday and lasts until sunset Saturday, is characterized by a family dinner
with special candles meant to represent two commandments Zachor and Shamor.
Zachor is remembering the Sabbath while Shamor is observing the Sabbath. During
this time, adherents are restricted from work, television, the telephone and
even carrying or pushing things. It is meant to be a time of calm and rest to
represent the break their god took when creating existence. It also serves as a
reminder of the covenant between god and his people. Other customs include the
circumcision of male infants and marriage, which is an interesting ceremony
that includes breaking of plates and glasses in remembrance of the destruction
of the holy temple in Jerusalem. Jewish
people worship in synagogues and temples with religious services being led by
Rabbis. Men are required to wear a yarmulke during prayer and women are
required to cover their heads as well. This is a sign of devoutness and respect
for god. Their holy days and festivals
include Hanukah, Passover, Rosh Hashanah and the Sabbath. Most holy days are observed in remembrance of historical events in the Jewish tradition.
The Jewish people have a long
history of hardship from the Bronze Age to current times. Jewish history,
according to their holy scriptures, began in the Bronze Age in the Middle East
with the prophet and patriarch Abraham, who left his home under the orders of
god. Abraham beget Ishmael, who Muslims feel is the founder of their lineage,
and Isaac, who the Israelites are descended from. Later, another prophet,
Moses, appeared in 1300 BCE to lead the Jewish people out of slavery from the
Egyptians and produced the ten commandments of god. This is the beginning of
Judaism as a structured religion rather than a cultural association. Later
still, a man name David became king of the Israelites and united the Israeli
kingdom under a religious and militaristic empire. He was believed to have died
in 1,00 BCE. His son Solomon built the temple which became the center of Jewish
religion for some time. Not much is verified about this ancient history, except
for the records left in their holy scriptures and oral histories. In 920 BCE
the united kingdom of Israel began to fall apart and the Jewish people split
into many different groups. The Jewish people faced conquest by the Babylonians
and, later, the Assyrians. In 600 BCE the temple of Solomon was destroyed and
many people were exiled into Babylon, beginning the Jewish tradition of the
Diaspora. Diaspora means living away from Israel, and which continued
throughout their history. Over the next 300 years BCE, Jewish adherents grew in
strength and size and were able to practice their religion freely. The Jewish
people revolted against their conquerors in 164 BCE and restored their temple.
This revolt is celebrated during the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah For a time the
Jewish people were are able to govern themselves however internal division
began to weaken them and Romans established control in 63 BCE. The Jewish
people were taxed and oppressed by their conquerors who were in turn aided by
the priests. It was during this time that the Jewish people began to look to
Pharisees and scribe, who would later become Rabbis, for religious guidance.
From 1 CE until around 1000 CE, Judaism became to develop and grown with many
cultural, social and religious changes. Religious academies were founded during
this time, and scholars came together to unify the laws and traditions of the
Jewish people. During the Islamic conquest of the Middle East and southern
Europe, the Jewish people experienced much more tolerance and ability to
participate in religious studies. Studies of science, Hebrew literature and
studies of the Talmud, the book of written oral law, flourished. Beginning in
1000 CE, the Jewish people began to suffer attacks and persecutions from
Christians during the Crusades. Many Jewish people were taken as slaves and
they were banned from their holy city, Jerusalem. Anti-Jewish sentiment
increased as they were accused of ritually murdering people, and the people
were murdered and forced to live in ghettos; wearing distinctive clothing to
identify themselves to others. In 1290, the expulsion of the Jews from Europe
began and in 1478 they suffered under the Spanish Inquisition. Eventually Jews
were expelled from Spain and Portugal. In the 1600’s, the Jewish people slowly
returned to Britain and other countries; slowly gaining rights and safety.
Their persecution wasn’t over though, and many Jewish people faced persecution
in Central Europe and Russia. The Jewish people eventually gained full rights
in Britain and the United States in the 19th century, but in the
beginning of the 20th century they would face even more persecution
and horror. The Holocaust is perhaps one
the best known persecutions of the Jewish people, where 6 million Jewish people
were killed between 1938 and 1946, in an extermination attempted by the Nazi
regime of Germany. It was a terrible tragedy where the Jewish people were
blamed for the wrongs of the world. It began with the Jewish people being
rounded up and, once again, being forced to live in ghettos and wear
distinctive clothing. The horror did not end their though, and most were
eventually sent to concentration camps where they were starved, forced to work
manual labor and eventually were killed or died.
After the Nazi Regime was
defeated, there was a big push for an independent state for the Jewish people.
The Zionist movement wanted to reclaim the Jewish holy land of Israel, which
was now Palestine and inhabited by the Palestinian people. Eventually the State
of Israel was formed and the people had their own country. Finally, after
centuries of Diaspora, the Jewish people had their home. Despite the unifying history, culture and
country there are many different sects of Judaism. Orthodox Judaism takes their
scriptures literally and follows a strict kosher diet. Orthodox Jews are also
more conservative in dress, hold worship services in Hebrew and separate men
and women during worship. Conservative
Judaism believes in biblical scholarship, is less strict on the dietary
restrictions and allows men and women to sit together during worship. Reformed
Judaism allows the kosher dietary restrictions to optional and is overall more
liberal than other sects, allowing women to become rabbis and services are held
in English. There is also a mystical sect of Judaism called Kabbala and some
Jewish people consider their faith to be more of a cultural tradition than a transcendent
religion.
3B. Judaism Film
To Do
·
3B – 45 min
The Jewish people faced many hardships during their history.
In 70 CE, the roman army broke through the walls of Jerusalem after a siege.
They slayed many Jewish people and destroyed the holy temple. This caused a
great despair to lose the temple that was at the center of Jewish worship.
According to their laws and customs, they could no longer worship God without
the temple. Some of the Jewish resistance fled to the edge of the desert against
the dead to sea, to the fortress of Masada. This hilltop fortress was built by
King Herod. This fortress was built so
that a very small force would be able to withstand a large army. This is
exactly what a Jewish resistance group did. The Sicarii, named for their long daggers,
had overtaken the fortresses from the Romans. For years the Sicarii were able
to hold off the Romans thanks to the one long narrow road that lead to the fortress.
Eventually, the romans grew tired of the siege and began to build a ramp to
reach the top of the walls, which would take two years to complete. The Sicarii
waited inside their mountain fortress for two years. The day before the ramp
would be complete the leadership held a meeting discussing their options; they
could surrender and be crucified as examples or they could die fighting,
leaving behind their women and children to be raped and sold into slavery. A
third and also terrible option was proposed, suicide. They could kill their women and children, and
then themselves to escape the punishment of the Romans. This is the option that
the Sicarrii chose, ten men were chosen to execute the people, and then those
men turned and killed one another until a final man was left who would kill
himself. These people became martyrs to the Jewish religion. They were not the
only Jewish sect to face persecution. The Essenes also were slaughtered and
wiped out. The only sect left was the Pharisees; the priesthood lost its power
when the temple was destroyed.
After the destruction of the temple and the loss of many
Jewish sects, Judaism had only Pharisees to keep the religion alive. Pharisees
would eventually be known as Rabbis, or spiritual teachers and leaders. Without the temple, these rabbis encouraged
acts of kindness to once again find the presence of god by helping those in
need. This conclusion came from studying
the ancient prophets in synagogue. Synagogues were devoted to debating biblical
law and how it pertains to living an ethical life without the temple. The loss
of the temple really changed the Jewish religion; instead of ritual sacrifice there
was prayer, instead of the traditional Passover festivities they created the
cedar in remembrance of their heritage. 60 years after the destruction of the
temple, a fragile peace was created between the Jewish people and the Empire. Many
people resettled along the Sea of Galilee.
Things were not to be peaceful for long though, and rumors
of revolt began to spread. Many people did not recognize or accept Roman rule
and things reach a boiling point. There were many attempts in historical
documents that may have been reason, either by the Romans turning Jerusalem
into a pagan city or the rumor that the Romans would ban circumcision. One leader began a revolt that used guerilla
style fighting to rise up against the romans, and hid in a cave to avoid
capture by the Romans. This leader was thought by some to be the messiah, the
one who would free the people from the Roman rule. He was a great military
leader and almost succeeded in removing the Romans for Judea. The Romans withdrew for a while and Judea was
able to be an independent kingdom. This would not last long though, the Romans
gathered a large force who were ordered to kill all who stand in their path. The
rebellion was killed and the people of Judea faced even greater persecution and
the romans tried to force the people from the region. Nearly 600,000 Jewish people were killed and
900 villages were destroyed in the aftermath of the uprising. This is when
Judea became Palestine and they were banned from Jerusalem, their holy city and
ancestral home.
The Jewish people began to leave Judea/Palestine and headed
out into the Roman Empire, settling in Babylon, Rome, Greece and many other
places. In the new lands of the Jewish people there were still more threats and
possible persecution, not from Romans but from Christians. Rome soon fell into
civil war and the kingdom was divided into East and West. The Eastern kingdom
was governed by Constantine, who converted to Christianity. Under this regime,
many Christian leaders began to spread anti-Jewish sentiment and blamed the
Jewish people as the killers of Jesus. This sentiment eventually led to taking
away the rights of the Jewish people and creating anti-Jewish laws. It became very difficult to be a Jew, to
learn to the laws, customs and stories of an ancient people. There were many
oral traditions and histories, but they were not gathered. Thusly the Talmud
began to be formed, it contained the laws, customs and narratives of the Jewish
people and the Talmud kept the knowledge of the Jewish people alive. The Talmud
helped to keep the religious knowledge safe and also made the knowledge
accessible to everyone that would seek it out. The Talmud is still an important
text today, so I believe the Jewish people succeed in keeping their history and
knowledge alive.
4A. Gnosticism Reading
Gnosticism began with its
roots in Judaic tradition but with the advent of Christianity this faith took
on Christian themes. Gnosticism is very similar to the Sant tradition and
Indian thought, both are part of a mystic tradition. Gnosticism comes from the
greek word gnosis, which means knowledge and in this religion refers to
spiritual knowledge. This knowledge is a spiritual and mystical knowledge which
includes; knowledge of god, which becomes knowledge of the self, and knowledge
of secret techniques and passwords for the soul to ascend to a higher
consciousness. The goal of Gnosticism is raised one’s consciousness up to this
higher plane, Gnostics saw the body as a cage where the soul was trapped and
kept apart from the Divine. Gnostics believe in a nameless, unchanging and
immeasurable god. This god transcends any attributes and is known as “the
invisible one who is above everything.” In some ways, Gnosticism is both
non-dualist and dualist. Souls become united in the divine but there is also a
heavy distinction between the external, physical world and the inner, spiritual
world.
The Gnostic movement is not
an organized religion with specific doctrines or creeds. In the 1st
and 2nd century CE, numerous schools of thought referred to
themselves as Gnostic, and sects were named after founders, places, symbols or
groups of people; like the Valentinus sect or the Cathars. Gnosticism is
associated with Christianity but takes a very different take on stories and
beliefs. For example, Gnostics believe the great original sin was not
perpetuated by Adam and Eve but is instead the fact that the inner self has
been forgotten and people have been lured to focus on the outside world. Some
Gnostics believed in the “divine man” who is a redeemer who takes human for to
reveal secrets and help souls return to the divine. Drawing from many different
mystical philosophies, Gnosticism also reinterpreted stories in the Old
Testament. For example in the story of Adam and Eve, the God who created the
earth and speaks to Adam and Eve is an evil being who wishes humans to be
trapped in ignorance. The serpent is a positive power who encourages Eve to
seek wisdom from the tree of forbidden knowledge and share it with her mate.
Gnostics believe the true God is not the god spoken of in the bible. The
biblical god is a jealous, petty god unlike the nameless god. They even point
to the fact that what sort of god would create a world so full of pain and
suffering.
There are many different
customs of the Gnostic movement. Some Gnostics practiced acsectism and
renounced worldly things and pleasures, believing these things to impede
spiritual growth. On an extreme end were the libertines who participated in
sexual rituals, feasts and orgies, but despite this refused to bring children
into an evil creation. In between these two extremes were moderate ascetics who
used materials of the world with caution, practiced marriage and procreation,
but were still indifferent to worldly pleasures and things. Gnostic adherents
believed in Jesus, but they believed he was here to impart gnosis and teach
followers meditation and other ways to access the greater spiritual realms.
Gnostics also believe in reincarnation until one reaches the Divine. Despite
the association with Christianity, the Gnostic movement was seen as crazy and
heretical. Gnostics were accused of underming of the Church and thusly gnostic
thought was condemned and the writings destroyed by the emerging Catholic
Church.
4B. Gnostic Film
According to Ellen Pagels in
her lecture, the early Christian movement was more pluralistic than the modern
Christianity that we know today. Early Christianity was filled with different
factions who disagreed over a numerous range of topics and beliefs. The
Gnostics were one of these factions who focused more on knowledge and inner
spirituality than the laws and wordly things. Gnostics were known as the
“children of the knowledge of the heart.” Gnostics, as many other mystical
traditions, were more focused on one’s inner being. The Gnostic movement did
not believe that creation was necessarily a good thing. They saw the world as a
prison of the soul and its creator evil and not benevolent. For why would a
good and kind creator create such a harsh world filled with sorrow and
suffering? Gnosis, or knowledge, helps us reconcile with our surroundings
because one can learn that the earth is an illusion and our bondage to earth a
trip. Gnosticism attempts to teach that humans are one with the divine or
godhead. This tradition believes that the deepest source of human nature is the
divine within ourselves.
Many orthodox Jewish and
Christian adherents find the Gnostic movment to be filled with heresy. The idea
that humans are one with the great, unnamed god is outside of the traditional
idea of God and of human nature. Ellen Pagels points out, that in a Gnostic
text, Jesus speaks to Thomas and says that when he comes to know himself he
will realize he is identical to Jesus, that he is Jesus’ twin. This isn’t to
say they are from the same mother, but that they both hold the same divine
nature within themselves. Jesus has simply accessed the knowledge and secrets
that are available to all who are able and willing.
5B. History of Christianity
Reading
Christianity is a religion
that has continued to grow and flourish for over 2,000 years and is now the
largest religion in the world. What has made this religion so successful
compared to other religions that have developed over the years? Adherents of Christianity
would say that it is the divine agency of god that has made their religion so
successful, but in the “Triumph of Christianity” the author contends that there
are three key factors that have made Christianity triumph over other religions.
Christianity began during the 1st Century CE after followers of
Jesus Christ claimed to have witnessed his teachings, death and subsequent
resurrection. The story of Jesus and his many miracles, and even his death and
ressuraction were not new ideas during this time. The story of Jesus shares
many similarities with Greek soteriological (sotor meaning savior) fictio which
includes ceremonies of partaking of the “flesh” of jesus (bread) and of his
“blood” (wine). Many of the miracles performed by Jesus mirror other stories in
Greek Mythology. During the beginning of Christianity, there were many pagan
religions that flourished under the Roman Empire. The Religion of Rome and
Ancient Greece was a pantheon of Gods and rituals that had been absorbed by the
empire. This religion was beginning to lose its sway over the people and lost
much of its meaning and moral imperative. Religion was seen more as a
personification of nature and the natural forces of cosmos, and despite
increased learning the system did not give comfort in the face of death nor did
it explain the evil in the world. New religions began to gain followers like
Judaism, mystery religions and gnostic religions.
Christianity’s first
advantage over these other religions was the broad base of appeal to those who
were seeking more than what the Roman religion offered. Mystery religions had 1
or 2 qualities similar to Christianity but not all. Christians believed in
transcendent God who was not a material being, and they also believed in a male
god who triumphed over bodily death. Christianity also had rigorous moral
ethics which seemed to be something people were looking for. The second
advantage of Christianity was the religious syncretism that took place.
Christianity absorbed many different aspects of other religions and melded them
with Christian belief and myth. For example, the mother and child Iconography
of the Isis mystery cult was transformed into the Virgin Mary and child. Even
festivals and holidays of Christianity have origins in Judaic or Pagan customs.
The final advantage of Christianity was it was far more inclusive than other
religions. The social equality and lack of religious requirement created a
large population of Christians very quickly; anyone could become Christian regardless
of gender, class, ethnicity or even lack of circumcision. Christianity was also
an apocalyptic cult that was not prone to revolutionary politics because
Christians saw to point to politics if the world was coming to end to be
replaced by god’s kingdom. The end was imminent and despite social inclusivity,
Christianity told adherents to follow social customs and bear inequality until
God’s kingdom had come to pass. The end was not as near as early Christians
expected, but by the time Christians realized this, the sense of mission and
purpose was well instilled in adherents.
Christianity today is the
largest religion in the world, with 2 billion adherents worldwide. It was
founded in Palestine and the religion centers on the life, teachings, death and
resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. The founder of the religion was not Jesus,
but his disciple Paul who spread the religion throughout the Roman Empire.
Christians believe in one god, who is three persons: the Father, Son and the
Holy Spirit. This trinity is often called the Godhead. Early Christians debated on the divinity of
Jesus, but the Council of Nicene, in 325 CE, adopted a unifying idea and belief
that all Christians believe today. This includes the belief that Jesus was a divine
being sent to redeem humans from sin and bring Gods kingdom to earth. The
Christian holy book is the bible, a collection of stories and myths that
contain the Old Testament, which is also used by the Judaic faith, and the New
Testament which tells the story of Jesus. Within the New Testament are four
gospels, or good news, that tells the story and teachings of Jesus. While there
are thousands of denominations of Christianity, the religion can be divided
into three major branches: Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant. The
Ressurection of Jesus is an important tenant of the faith and many early Christians
consider Jersulem to be their holy land. This idea led Christians in the middle
ages to embark on crusades to regain Jeruslem and their holy land from Muslims
and Jewish people. Christianity has a long culturally and political history,
and despite some questionable actions, remains a popular and growing religion.
5B. Christianity Film
The John Green lecture
discusses who the historical Jesus was, along with his message of love,
kindness and justice. This message was a radical message for the time and Jesus
took an anti-authoritarian stance which was dangerous during the time of the
Roman Empire. The Jewish people held a belief that a messiah would come during
a time of trouble to save them and to some, it certainly seemed like Jesus fit
the bill. The idea of a messiah was not unique to Judaism however, and it was a
story that was told across multiple faiths and philosophy systems.
The film “Did Jesus Die on
Cross” was a very interesting film that presented numerous theories about what
happened to Jesus after he was hung on the cross. Some scholars debate whether
or not Jesus actually died on the cross based off of different gospels, common
knowledge and legends of him remaining alive. This idea is considered heresy to
many Christians because the resurrection of Jesus from death is important facet
of the faith, indeed the divinity of Jesus and his resurrection is what helped
to create the Christian movement as full-fledged religion and not a sect of
Judaism. Some believe there was a conspiracy when Jesus was crucified that
allowed him to survive the pain and suffering of his execution. According to
the gospels, Jesus died on the cross after 3-6 hours after his crucifixion but
historical evidence points to the fact that death from crucifixion typically
took several days for a person to day. Jesus took an unusually short time to
die, and the guard who declared him dead had earlier been quoted as saying that
Jesus was the son of God. Some scholars believe that when his disciples lifted
a sponge of vinegar to his lips, it was not actually vinegar but a concoction to
make him appear dead to the Roman guards in charge of his executions. There is
also an account of when Jesus was taken away after dying on the cross, and with
the body of Jesus his disciples also took herbs with them. He took aloe herbs
with him, which are healing herbs and not embalming herbs typically used for
death. It was posited that perhaps these herbs were meant to heal Jesus and
help him escape his fate of crucifixion. This fate is more a resuscitation than
a resurrection.
So where did Jesus go after
his crucifixion if he did live? The BBC documentary suggests that whether Jesus
was resuscitated or resurrected, there are accounts of him surviving. One thought is that Jesus escaped his
crucifixion with Mary Magdalene, a disciple who he had a very close
relationship with. Some would even suggest that they were married and had
children together, possibly in the south of France where a cult of Mary
Magdalene was formed. There is a shrine to her in the south of France, where
legend tells she came with her brother Lazarus and sister and a few companions.
Scholars suggest one of these companions that arrived in France was Jesus, who
would begin a new life with his family. It is certainly possible with the technology
and travelling of that era.
Another view is that Jesus traveled to the kingdom of Kashmir, which is located in the mountains of the Indian
subcontinent. Instead of heading west towards France, Jesus headed east along
the silk route to gather the missing tribes of Israel. This route would have
been easier because it avoided travelling through the heart of the Roman
Empire.
I do not necessarily support
any of these theories about what happened. I am more inclined to believe that
Jesus was able to survive his crucifixion and lived out his life in another country
to escape his punishment than being divinely resurrected. I do like the idea
that Jesus fled east towards India because Christianity shares a similar
philosophy of Buddhism with its focuses on compassion, equality and
forgiveness. The film posits another theory that Jesus went to India when he
was 14 and became a student of Buddhism. He later returned to Israel at the age
of 29, which matches closely to the time Jesus began his ministry in Israel. This
idea would explain the similarities in philosophy, especially in the idea that
the meek will inherit the earth and a rich man cannot inherit the kingdom of
god. These ideas did not come from the Judaic religion but bear remarkable semblance
to Buddhist teachings. This is perhaps the theory I support the most. There are
even Jewish/Christian traditions in India, with one tribe calling themselves a
tribe of Israel.
6A. Christian Denominations
Reading
For the first 1,000 years of
Christianity there were no denominations like what exists today. There were offshoots,
like Gnosticism, that existed but these groups were considered heretical. The
Catholic Church was the only church that existed until the Great Schism between
the eastern and western branches of the church in 1054 which created the Orthodox
Church. Following this, in 1529 was the Protestant
reformation started by Martin Luther. All denominations of Christianity hold
the same basic beliefs established by the early councils of Christian history.
The first of these councils the, the Council of Nicene, established that Jesus
was of a divine nature, creating a trinity or godhead with God, Jesus and the
Holy Spirit. All Christian’s believe that Jesus was born to Mary, lived, died
and was resurrected 3 days later. The bible, consisting of the Old Testament
and the New Testament, are Christian’s holy texts, although different denominations
interpret them differently.
Roman Catholicism is the
largest denomination, with over a billion adherents in the world. Catholicism
is not just a general branch of Christianity, but a very specific denomination with
very specific beliefs, rites, customs and expectations of those who would
follow the faith. At the head of the Church is the pope, who is believed to be
the spiritual successor to Peter, the disciple. Catholicism differs from
Protestantism in many ways. Catholics have saints, who may intercede on the
behalf of souls to help them gain salvation and also believe in Purgatory where
a soul may purify itself before heaven. Catholicism is also heavy on ritual,
their religious service is called a mass, and is heavy on liturgy, which isn’t
seen any other denominations with the exception of Eastern Orthodox and
Anglican. Catholicism also has seven sacraments which include baptism,
confirmation, communion, and marriage.
Eastern Orthodox Christianity
has 225 million adherents worldwide, with the largest concentration in the
former Byzantine Empire, which includes countries like Greece and Turkey. This
was the first denomination to arise after the Great Schism with the Catholic
Church. The church is organized into several regional churches, called
autocephalous. Major churches include Russian Orthodox, Greek Orthodox and
Romanian Orthodox. The religious authority is 7 ecumenical councils that
interpret religious scriptures. The Orthodox Church places an emphasis on the
divine nature of Jesus rather than on legal aspects of Christianity, like the
Catholic Church. Eastern Orthodoxy believes that humans were created in the
image of god, and we are most human when in full communion with god. Sinning
makes one somehow less human. Like the Catholic Church, Orthodox religion is also
highly liturgical.
53% of Americans identify as
protestant Christian but this denomination is more of a general branch of Christianity
with many denominations that fall under the protestant umbrella with a range of
theological ideas. The main tenants of Protestantism reject familiar catholic
belief and practices and adhere more to the authority of the bible and early
creeds. Protestants believe in justification, or salvation, by grace alone
through an adherent’s faith. Denominations that fall under the Protestant umbrella
include Baptists, who believe in a locally autonomous church and in only
biblical authority, Presbyterian, which focuses on the bible and sovereignty of
god as well as local autonomy, and Seventh-Day Advent, which is a prophetic
movement that considers itself a part of the Protestant tradition. This
denomination has strict dietary observances, very similar to the Jewish Kosher
restrictions and believes the end of the world is near. Lutheranism is also
part of the Protestant branch, and is the largest Protestant denomination.
Lutheranism was founded by Martin Luther and is also the oldest tradition. In addition
to the Bible, Lutherans also hold the Book
of Concord as an important text.
The Anglican denomination,
called Episcopalian in the US, is considered the middle way between Catholicism
and Protestantism. This church also has its roots in the Protestant reformation
but its formation has more to do with King Henry the 8th’s desire to
divorce. There are very little doctrinal or ritual changes from Catholicism.
The Monarch of England is considered the head of the church and “defender of
the faith” and they are the ones who select the Archbishop of Canterbury who
holds several important religious offices. Outside of the Church of England,
other Anglican Churches are part of what is called the Anglican Communion.
There are many other
denominations, but two denominations that stand outside major branches are the
Amish and Quakers. The Amish denomination, sometimes called Amish Mennonites,
is known for their separation from modern society and rejecting most modern
technology. They take care to dress in a distinctive conservative manner and
also do not use electricity. The Amish also reject any religious authority and
value the Bible as the sole source of religious authority. Religious services
are held in High German, and are not held in churches. Quakers, also known as
the society of friends, is a denomination that has 400,00 adherents worldwide.
Their worship is characterized by silently waiting for the Holy Spirit to move
them to speak. They believe that every person has an inner light from god, and
don’t observe baptism or communion.
6B. Christian Denominations
Film
The Amish family featured on
the BBC film seemed like a very happy, busy family. Even though the family
eschews most modern technology and conveniences, the people of the Amish faith
are still part of our society. I didn't know that the Amish could shop at
target or ride in a car and it was very interesting to see this in the film. I
also think it was very brave for this family to share their lives and home with
the world, so others can see what their life is like. Without electricity the
family has more time to focus on living good lives, surrounded by family and
hard work. They live the way they believe god intended them to live and prayer
seems an important tenant of their lives. I was also surprised to know that
some Amish don’t even live on farms, but own smalls businesses that employ
Amish and non-Amish alike. This was very interesting but even the father of the
family dreamed of one day being able to own a farm. I know there are a lot of
differences between the Amish and myself, but I couldn’t help but notice all
the similarities. Not only do they shop at regular stores but, with the
exception of not having electricity, they also have homes very similar to ours
too.
If I had a friend who was
Amish, I would first ask if they were happy and had found peace with their religion.
If they said yes, I would tell them that I admire them for the dedication and conviction
in their faith. Having enough faith to live a completely different lifestyle
than contemporary society takes a lot of courage and a lot of strength. I know
that I would not be able to eschew modern life to focus on living according to
god’s plan. I admire the Amish for the hard work, and their willingness to
forgo convenience in order to not be distracted from life or their family. The
familiar togetherness of the Amish is heartwarming and also very admirable; too
often do we see people more interested in themselves than in their family and
their community. However, if my friend said that they were not contented with
their religion I would encourage them to challenge what they had been taught
and seek the truth out for themselves. Just because a way of life works for
some people does not mean it is the right path for everyone, regardless of
family or tradition. I think it’s beautiful if someone chooses a more difficult
or alternative path in life, but only if it is their calling. I would challenge
them to look beyond their religion and really discover what is going to make
them satisfied and happy in this world.
7A. Biblical Scholarship
reading
There are many presuppositions
about the bible that are made on astonishing claims not even found in the text,
but are rather made on behalf of the bible. These five false claims are: the
bible is a book, the bible is a pious tale about saints, the bible is for
children, that it is a book of theology and that the bible was written by god.
None of these claims are true, nor does the actual text of the bible make any
of these claims. To begin with, the bible is not a book. It does not have a
uniform style, message or author. The bible is closer to a library or anthology
of books that have been written and edited over an extensive period of time.
The bible also has many different styles; there are books of law, narratives,
lyrical poetry, love poetry and proverbs. Each book is reflective of the
different political, cultural, and philosophical environment at the time each
individual book was written. The next claim is that the bible is a pious tale
about saints, but this couldn’t be further from the truth. The bible doesn’t
contain pious people who can be an ethical model for human; instead it is about
realistic people in real-life situations. People in the bible act in a whole
range of manners, some are scandalous or violent, but there are righteous people
and even those who have acted unrightfully can change their behavior and turn
over a new leaf. The next claim is that the bible is written for children. This
claim is easily disputed by anyone who has read the bible. The books of the
bible contain very adult subject matter; covering topics like treachery,
murder, rape and incest along with legal matters. People also believe that the
bible is a book of theology, but it is not a manual of religion. There are no
set doctrines or creeds placed in the bible, and during the time the bible was
written religion was just a set of doctrines either. To become an Israelite,
one became a part of the community by participating in the historical,
cultural, religious and legal aspects that came with being an Israelite. The
bible is an account of the Israelite people, not a theological model. It does
cover some religious beliefs and ideas, but it is not the definitive source for
theology. The final claim is that the bible was written by god. Nowhere in the
bible does it make this claim. The bible was assembled, edited, modified,
censored and transmitted by human beings and this long line of assembly does
not make the words of the bible infallible.
Knowing that the five astonishing
claims of the bible are inherently not true, I appreciate the bible as a
historical and mythological document of the Jewish people. The bible contains
their myths, legends, laws and history all wrapped into one package. Modern
scholars are also interested in the factual aspects of the bible, and seek
evidence to verify the history contained in the bible. Surprisingly, many of
the claims of the bible have proven to not be historically accurate. For
example, the patriarch Abraham is believed in the bible to have left the city
of Ur between the years 2100 and 1800 BCE, however archaeologists have researched
into the urban development and nomadic growth of this region and there is no
evidence that any migration of this sort occurred. Cities mentioned in the
biblical account also do not match the archaeological evidence. Another
interesting anachronism is that the bible frequently mentions the use of camel
caravans to trade, especially in the book of Genesis, however analysis of
ancient animal’s bones proved that camels were not widely used until after 1000
BCE. Genesis also mentions Abimelech,
king of the Philistines, but the Philistines were not a presence in the area
until after 1200 BCE.
Another interesting find of
scholars is the ruins of Masada. Masada was a hilltop fortress where it was it
is believed that 1,000 Jewish warriors killed their wives and children, and
then committed suicide to escape capture by the Romans. There is no evidence
for these claims but it has emerged as one of Israel’s preeminent nationalist shrines.
Military recruits are even taken to this shrine to take an oath in a dramatic
nighttime ceremony. Perhaps the most glaring inaccuracy of the bible is the
enslavement of the Hebrew people by the Egyptians and their subsequent exodus
from Egypt. Nowhere in Egyptian records is there mention of a slave revolt or
exodus, which is astonishing considering the bible claims no fewer than 603,550
Hebrew slaves left. Also, had this event actually occurred, modern archaeology techniques
would be able to detect even trace evidence of hunter-gatherer societies. The
bible may be an important text to many of the Abrahamic faiths but the claims
and events are not necessarily the truth.
7B. Biblical Scholarship Film
There are many important and
events in Jewish history that have been recorded in the Bible, which most
people take as fact. However, if one is to look at the historical and archaeological
evidence it becomes apparent that many facts were embellished, wrongly dated or
simply flat out wrong. Many people know the story of David, a young shepherd,
and Goliath, a giant warrior of the Philistines, and how David defeated the
giant with his sling and a rock. Another familiar story is that of David’s son,
Solomon who was a wise king who built the holy temple in Jerusalem. Did these
men even exist? Scholars have set out to determine who these men really were
and their place in history. If they did exist, they would have lived in the 10th
century BCE. Archaeologists have been digging in Jerusalem, the city that was supposedly
at the center of the Davidic Empire.
The best evidence of David
comes from accounts from his enemies. The bible claims David was a great
military ruler who created an empire for the Jordan River to the Mediterranean
Sea. Archaeology has found a stone monument that was dedicated to triumph over
the “house of David.” This is the first mention of David outside the bible,
proving the house of David did exist. There is also archaeological evidence of
the Philistine city of Gath, where the Bible claims Goliath hailed from, during
the 12th, 11th, 10th and 9th
century BCE. The city was destroyed in the 9th century and this is
one the bible stops mention the city. This is some evidence of truth in the
bible. Another source of information about the truth of David comes from his
enemies, the Edomites. Until recently, it was believed the Edomites were nomads
but there is compelling evidence to suggest Edomites were a substantial
military power. Scholars have found slags, waste products of copper production
which indicate a centralized society and the use of weapons. Radiocarbon dating
suggest that Edom thrived at just the right time as the biblical claims.
Solomon, David’s son and successor,
is claimed to have built the Temple which housed the Ark of the Covenant.
However, there are no ruins of the temple to be found for modern archaeologist.
Some say the description of the temple is simply too grand for 10th
century BCE, but archaeological evidence suggests that there were temples that
matched the design and ornamentation described in the bible. These temples are
in Syria, however, and not in Israel. Another thought is that if a great and
wealthy temple existed, where did all that wealth go? Some scholars suggest the
Egyptians took it, and historical records do indicate the Egyptians raided
several Israeli cities, but there is no mention of a temple or Jerusalem in
Egyptian historical documents. Modern science makes biblical scholarship very
interesting and also holds the claims of the bible to a much higher scholarly
scrutiny.
8A. Biblical Scholarship –
New Testament Reading
John Dominc Crossan is a
former Catholic priest, who upon his leaving the priesthood became a scholar
focused on finding out who the historical Jesus was. Crossan locates this
historical Jesus where there independent vectors cross, and only at the
intersection of these three factors does he consider the information close to
fact. First, Crossan uses cross cultural anthropology by comparing the common
history of cultures and societies based on the same ecological and
technological types. This vector gives a basis in reality without a need to
involve religion or theology. For example, it is often thought that Jesus was a
literate, middle class carpenter but anthropology tells us that there was no
middle class in ancient society. Carpenters were typically peasants and
peasants were not normally literate. Already we can see the historical Jesus is
much different than one the bible portrays. The second vector Crossan uses is
Greco-Roman and Jewish history. Israel was a colony of the Roman Empire at the
time of Jesus, and there are many written records and accounts of this time.
Crossan specifically focuses on the works of an aristocratic Jewish historian, Josephus,
who has two seprate but parallel accounts of this time. Historical records show
that during the 1st century AD there were consistent peasant
uprisings, and Crossan pays attention to protestors and prophets mentioned
during this time. Finally Crossan uses the textual evidence of the gospels. He does
not exclude himself by only using the canonical versions of the bible, for
there are many gospels from this time period. Crossan states that there are
three levels of development found in all gospels, the retention of the original
materials about Jesus, the development of original materials and the creation
of new materials in various gospels. Crossan focuses on the earliest level, the
retention of the original material, which range from 30-60 CE. Crossan also
never uses information that comes from a single source or claim.
Crossan believes that Jesus
was killed because he was considered a dangerous relio-politcal figure by both
the Jewish leadership and Roman government. Jesus preached a radical message of
social change and equality, without class or gender distinction. Jesus focused
on the message of healing, love and free compassion. These ideas were dangerous
to the established order of things, so he was crucified to stop this movement.
Unfortunately for those in power, Christianity persisted and is now the largest
major world religion.
8B. Biblical Scholarship –
New Testament Reading
Jesus is an important religious figure, but it is also
important to note he was also a human being who lived during ancient times.
There are many beliefs and misconceptions about who the man Jesus was. One of the
common belief is that Jesus was a middle class carpenter, but Crossan points
out that there was no middle class in the ancient world, only the haves and
have nots. In addition, the idea of carpenter in the modern world is that of a
highly skilled worker but in the ancient world a carpenter was not a compliment.
Carpenters or other artisans were lower in social status than a farmer. Other farmers believe that while Jesus may
have been in an artisan class of the building industry. He may have worked in a
local city where he may have been exposed to many cultures, including the Greek
language. Eventually Jesus set out to teach other his message, one of
fulfillment.
Another important historical aspect of Jesus was that he was
Jewish and an active member of the Jewish community. His teachings were not of
a new religion but of a new idea to Judaism. It was part of the Jewish
tradition to have different teachers and scholars debating and studying Jewish
law. It was not just Jesus questioning the practices of the Jewish faith, but
many different people in this community, even those who do not have a religious
education. There were also many different sects of Judaism, including the Essenes,
who are also responsible for the Dead Sea scrolls. This sect was an apocalyptic
sect of Judaism, a sect which believed it was the true form of the religion and
awaiting the end of the world. Crossan notes an apocalyptic sect is one who has
a notion that god will eradicate the evil and the good will join god in a place
of holiness. The Dead Sea scrolls spoke
of two messiahs, one a messiah of Aaron, a priestly messiah who will restore
the temple of Jerusalem and a messiah of David, a more earthly like ruler who
will lead the war. The scrolls talk about a war between the sons of light and
the sons of dark, which would result in a cataclysmic war that will engulf most
of creation, with the sons of the light winning.
The film also discusses John the Baptist, a prophet who
wandered the Judea countryside calling for change in the world, living an
almost ascetic life. Crossan explains how John is reliving the exodus by taking
people out into the desert, crossing the Jordan and baptizing. Jesus himself submitted to a baptism,
according to Crossan, despite the religious texts of the bible believing Jesus
to being a higher religious status than John the Baptist. The bible attempts to
explain the relationship between John the Baptist and Jesus without reducing
the divinity of Jesus, but historians are able to read past the actual words
and see intentions of the writer. According to Crossan, John was more of an apocalyptic
preacher and Jesus was more of a healing ministry to bring god’s word and order
to the world.
Dr. Bart Ehrman disputes the historical accuracy of the Gospels
for many different reasons. He first begins with necessity to have multiple,
independent sources to verify a claim as credible. He also challenges the authenticity
of the bible because of how long it took to write the gospels after the death
of Jesus. The first gospel, 1st Corinthians, was written 20 years
after the death of Jesus and the other gospels were written even later after
that. Dr. Ehrman also points that the actual authors of the gospels are anonymous
and that the gospels were literate Greek speakers, not like the Jewish peasants
that were the first disciples of Jesus, whose native tongue was Aramaic. He also points out the inconsistencies between
the gospels in a variety of matters including when Jesus died, how many people
witnessed his death and even who encountered Jesus after the resurrection. All the
claims depend on which gospel is read. Why is this? Dr. Ehrman points out that
without an eyewitness account and without writing down the accounts for many
years, oral traditions can easily change a story. The gospels are not reliable historical
accounts, but simply written accounts of an oral tradition who were trying to
convince others to convert to Christianity.
